Previous Year Question

A. Indus Valley Civilization — Urban (4): One of the most important characteristics of the Harappan or Indus Valley Civilization was its developed urban character. Centres such as Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Dholavira and Lothal show evidence of planned settlements, street layouts, drainage, craft production and trade. This does not mean that agriculture was unimportant; rather, a strong agricultural base supported these urban centres.

B. Later Vedic Society — Agrarian (3): During the Later Vedic period, agriculture became much more important. With the expansion of settlements into the Ganga-Yamuna Doab and the middle Ganga valley, plough-based cultivation gained greater importance. Rice and other crops are mentioned along with barley. Pastoralism continued, but it was no longer the principal basis of subsistence as in the Early Vedic period; a mixed economy based on cultivation and herding developed.

C. Rigvedic Society — Pastoral (1): The economic life of Rigvedic society was predominantly pastoral. Cows and cattle were important measures of wealth and status, and pasture grounds possessed considerable importance. Agriculture was known, but during the early Rigvedic phase its role was relatively limited compared with cattle rearing.

D. Medieval Period — Land Lordism (2): In the broad classificatory framework of the question, the Medieval Period is associated with landlordism or landed intermediaries. Particularly in the Early Medieval period, historians have discussed the expansion of land grants, landed intermediaries and groups exercising rights over cultivators. In the later medieval period also, rural groups such as zamindars played important roles in land and revenue arrangements.

It should be kept in mind that these four expressions represent major general characteristics of the respective periods; they do not reduce the entire complex economy of each period to only one feature.